Chapter II

The Continuation of Colonization and New Extremist Colonial Powers 
(USA, EU, UK, France, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand)

Colonialism, an epoch marked by the domination and exploitation of one group of people by another, is often thought of in historical terms. However, the legacy of colonialism persists in the modern era through new forms of imperial control and intervention. The expansion of European colonial powers like the USA, UK, France, EU, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia post-1947 represents a continuation of these practices. These nations, founded on the displacement and marginalization of Indigenous peoples, have since extended their influence across the globe, perpetuating patterns of exploitation and control.

The Historical Context: Settler Colonialism
The roots of contemporary global dominance can be traced back to the era of settler colonialism, where European powers established colonies by settling their own populations on lands occupied by Indigenous peoples. This process involved not just the subjugation of local populations but the creation of new political entities based on exclusionary and often violent means. The USA, UK, France, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand exemplify this form of colonialism.

United States:
Turtle Island what Sioux called (America):
The colonization of what is now the United States began with European settlers displacing various Indigenous nations such as the Cherokee, Sioux, Navajo, and Iroquois. The establishment of the United States involved the systematic removal of these peoples from their ancestral lands, which were then developed into states. The resulting nation expanded across the continent, driven by a doctrine known as Manifest Destiny.

Manifest Destiny:
Manifest Destiny was a 19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the United States across the North American continent was both justified and inevitable. The term states that it was the United States’ divine right and duty to expand westward and spread its form of democracy and capitalism. This ideology was used to justify the acquisition of territories through war, treaties, and forced removals of Indigenous peoples.
Manifest Destiny was a powerful motivator for American expansionism and played a crucial role in the displacement of Indigenous tribes. It provided a moral and political rationale for the annexation of large swaths of land, including the Louisiana Purchase, the annexation of Texas, the Oregon Trail migrations, and the Mexican-American War, which resulted in the U.S. acquiring territories such as California, Nevada, and Utah.

Violations of Treaties with Indigenous Nations:
The United States government has a long history of violating treaties with Indigenous nations. Over the course of American history, numerous treaties were signed with Indigenous tribes, promising various rights, lands, and protections. However, many of these treaties were broken or ignored by the federal government. It is estimated that over 370 treaties were signed with various Indigenous tribes, and the majority of these treaties were violated or not honored by the U.S. government. Key examples include:
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851 and 1868): The U.S. government promised to recognize the Black Hills as sacred land for the Lakota Sioux and agreed to certain boundaries. However, after gold was discovered in the Black Hills, the government breached the treaty, leading to conflicts such as the Sioux Wars.
Treaty of Greenville (1795): This treaty was intended to end the Northwest Indian War and establish boundaries between lands of the Shawnee and Miami tribes and U.S. territories. Over time, the U.S. government encroached on these lands, leading to further displacement of these Indigenous peoples.
Treaty of New Echota (1835): This treaty, signed without the consent of the Cherokee National Council, ceded Cherokee lands to the U.S. and led to the forced removal known as the Trail of Tears. The Cherokee Nation, along with the Creek, Choctaw, and Seminole nations, faced significant losses due to forced relocations.

Post-Civil War Developments:
Following the Civil War and the formal end of slavery, the U.S. government made several promises to freed slaves that were largely unmet. The Homestead Act of 1862 granted land to settlers, but the promise of land for freed slaves was largely ignored, and many African Americans were left without the economic opportunities they had been promised.
The Two-Mule Policy: In the aftermath of the Civil War, the government made some attempts to provide land to freed slaves through policies such as General William Tecumseh Sherman’s Special Field Orders No. 15, which allocated land in parts of South Carolina and Georgia. However, this policy was quickly reversed, and the land was returned to their former slave owners, leaving many freed slaves without land.
Jim Crow Laws: After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, Southern states implemented Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans. These laws established separate facilities for Black and white citizens and were designed to maintain racial inequality. The impact of Jim Crow laws lasted well into the 1960s and were a significant barrier to civil rights and social equality.
Voting Rights: Despite the 15th Amendment (1870), which ostensibly granted African American men (not women) the right to vote, many states employed discriminatory practices like literacy tests, poll taxes, and other barriers to disenfranchise Black voters. It wasn’t until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that significant progress was made in ensuring voting rights for African Americans.

United Kingdom:
Englands’s Colonization and Historical Context:
Turtle Island (North America) Settlements:
Establishment of Colonies:
The British Empire began its colonization of Turtle Island, known today as North America, in the early 17th century. The British established colonies along the eastern seaboard, including in areas that are now part of the United States and Canada. These colonies were set up with the intent of expanding British influence and securing resources.

Wampanoag:
In New England, the arrival of British settlers led to significant conflicts with Indigenous groups such as the Wampanoag. The most notable of these was King Philip’s War (1675-1676), a devastating conflict that resulted in massive loss of life and land for the Wampanoag and other Indigenous peoples.
Treaties and Land Cessions: British colonial policy included negotiating treaties with Indigenous nations, though these treaties were often unfair and did not honor the sovereignty or land rights of the Indigenous peoples. The British systematically encroached on Indigenous lands, leading to displacement and loss of traditional territories.
Impact of Settler Expansion: The expansion of British settlements led to the dispossession of Indigenous lands and disruption of traditional ways of life. The imposition of British legal and administrative systems further marginalized Indigenous communities.

Australia Settlements:
First Fleet and Settlement: British colonization of Australia began in 1788 with the arrival of the First Fleet at Botany Bay, led by Captain Arthur Phillip. The establishment of New South Wales marked the beginning of systematic colonization.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: The arrival of British settlers had a profound impact on the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Colonization led to the dispossession of their lands, the spread of diseases, and violent conflicts. The British imposed their own legal and social systems, often disregarding Indigenous customs and governance.
Impact of British Policies: The British authorities implemented policies that sought to assimilate Indigenous peoples, including the removal of children from their families, known as the Stolen Generations. These policies aimed to erase Indigenous cultures and languages.
Land Rights and Recognition: The struggle for land rights and recognition has been a significant issue for Indigenous Australians. The landmark Mabo decision in 1992 recognized the concept of native title, but many Indigenous communities continue to seek justice and reparations for historical injustices.

New Zealand Settlements:
Early Settlements: British colonization of New Zealand began in the early 19th century with the arrival of missionaries and settlers. The Treaty of Waitangi, signed in 1840 between the British Crown and Māori chiefs, was intended to establish a framework for British sovereignty and Māori rights.
Māori: The British colonization process led to significant conflicts with the Māori people, including the New Zealand Wars (1845-1872). These conflicts were driven by disputes over land ownership, sovereignty, and the terms of the Treaty of Waitangi.

Treaty of Waitangi:
The Treaty of Waitangi is a foundational document that sought to protect Māori rights and establish a legal framework for British governance. However, disputes over the interpretation and implementation of the Treaty led to ongoing grievances. The Waitangi Tribunal, established in 1975, investigates breaches of the Treaty and provides recommendations for redress.
Cultural and Social Impacts: The British colonial administration imposed new systems of governance and legal frameworks that often undermined Māori customs and social structures. The effects of colonization continue to impact Māori communities today, with efforts towards reconciliation and addressing historical injustices ongoing.

Asia:
India (British Raj): The British East India Company began its involvement in India in the early 17th century, gradually expanding its control through military conquest and alliances with local rulers. By the mid-19th century, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British Crown took direct control, leading to the establishment of the British Raj (1858-1947). British rule in India was characterized by economic exploitation, the introduction of Western education and legal systems, and significant social and cultural changes. The imposition of British policies disrupted traditional industries and led to widespread poverty, famines, and social unrest. The Indian independence movement, led by figures such as Mahatma Gandhi, eventually resulted in the end of British rule in 1947.

China and the Opium Wars: British involvement in China during the 19th century was driven by the desire to expand trade, particularly in opium. The Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) were conflicts between China and Britain over trade imbalances and the opium trade. The British victories in these wars forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain and open several ports to British trade under unequal treaties. These events marked the beginning of the “Century of Humiliation” for China, during which it faced foreign domination and internal strife.

Southeast Asia (British Malaya and Burma): In Southeast Asia, the British established colonies in Malaya (modern-day Malaysia) and Burma (now Myanmar). British control over Malaya began in the late 18th century, focusing on the extraction of tin and rubber, which fueled the industrial growth of the British Empire. In Burma, British colonization followed a series of Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century, resulting in the annexation of Burma into British India. British rule in these regions was marked by economic exploitation, the imposition of Western legal and education systems, and the marginalization of indigenous cultures and governance structures.

Alkebulan what Nubians, Khart-Haddans called (Africa):
West Africa (Gold Coast and Nigeria):
British colonization in West Africa began with the establishment of trading posts along the coast, which later expanded into full-fledged colonies. In the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), the British formalized their control in the late 19th century, focusing on the extraction of gold, cocoa, and other resources. In Nigeria, British colonization involved the amalgamation of diverse ethnic groups into a single colony, which led to significant cultural and political challenges. The British imposed their own systems of governance, often exacerbating ethnic tensions and contributing to long-term instability in the region.

East Africa (Kenya and Uganda):
British colonization in East Africa involved the establishment of settler colonies in Kenya and Uganda. In Kenya, the British displaced indigenous communities to make way for European settlers, leading to significant land alienation and economic disparity. The Mau Mau Uprising (1952-1960) was a significant anti-colonial rebellion in Kenya, which ultimately contributed to the country’s independence in 1963. In Uganda, British rule involved the exploitation of agricultural resources and the imposition of Western education and legal systems, leading to long-term social and economic impacts.

Southern Africa (South Africa and Zimbabwe):
In Southern Africa, British colonization was marked by the establishment of the Cape Colony and later the expansion into the interior, including present-day South Africa and Zimbabwe. The discovery of diamonds and gold in the region fueled British interest and led to conflicts with both indigenous African groups and Boer settlers (descendants of Dutch colonists). British rule in South Africa institutionalized racial segregation, laying the groundwork for the apartheid system that emerged in the 20th century. In Zimbabwe, known as Rhodesia under British rule, the colonization process involved the expropriation of land from indigenous peoples and the establishment of a white settler minority government.

Colonial Legacy and Contemporary Issues:
Economic Exploitation: The British Empire’s colonial policies were driven by economic exploitation, including the extraction of resources and the establishment of trade networks that benefited England while destroying Indigenous and local economies. The legacy of these policies continues to affect the economic development of former colonies.
Cultural Disruption: British colonization often involved the imposition of Western cultural norms and legal systems, leading to the erosion of Indigenous and local cultures, languages, and governance structures. In many regions, the effects of colonization are still felt today, with ongoing struggles for cultural preservation, land rights, and social justice.

France:
France’s Colonization and Historical Context:
Colonization and Displacement of Indigenous Peoples:
French colonialism began in the early 17th century with the establishment of territories in North America, the Caribbean, and parts of Africa. French settlers and explorers sought to expand French influence and control over these regions, leading to significant interactions and conflicts with Indigenous peoples.

Turtle Island (America) Settlements:
New France: French colonization in North America primarily focused on the region known as New France, which included parts of modern-day Canada and the United States. French explorers, such as Samuel de Champlain, established settlements like Quebec City and Montreal. The French engaged in extensive fur trading, which brought them into contact with various Indigenous nations.
Huron and Algonquin Conflicts: The French formed alliances with some Indigenous groups, including the Huron (Wendat) and Algonquin. However, their expansion and fur trade operations often led to conflicts with other tribes such as the Iroquois Confederacy. The Iroquois Wars, also known as the Beaver Wars, were partly driven by competition for control over the fur trade.
Missionary Activity: French Jesuit missionaries were active in converting Indigenous peoples to Christianity. These missions were often accompanied by efforts to integrate Indigenous peoples into French colonial society, which disrupted traditional cultures and ways of life.
Treaties and Land Cessions: French colonial policies included the negotiation of treaties with Indigenous nations, which often involved ceding large tracts of land. Many of these treaties were unfairly negotiated and did not fully respect Indigenous sovereignty or land rights.

Caribbean Settlements:
Colonial Settlements: France established colonies in the Caribbean, including Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), Martinique, and Guadeloupe. French colonial rule in these regions relied heavily on the transatlantic slave trade, which forcibly brought African slaves to work on sugar plantations.
Impact on Indigenous Peoples: In the Caribbean, Indigenous populations were severely impacted by European colonization. The spread of diseases, violent conflicts, and displacement led to a dramatic decline in Indigenous populations.

Alkebulan what Nubians, Khart-Haddans called (Africa) Settlements:

West Africa:
Senegal:
Colonial Establishment:
French involvement in Senegal began in the 17th century, but it was formally established as a French colony in 1895. Senegal became a key part of French West Africa, a federation of eight French colonies.

Economic Exploitation: The French exploited Senegal’s agricultural resources, particularly groundnuts (peanuts), and established a cash-crop economy that prioritized export over local needs. The introduction of forced labor and high taxation imposed significant burdens on the local population.

Cultural and Social Impact: French colonial administration introduced French legal, educational, and cultural systems, which marginalized local traditions and languages. The French promoted a policy of assimilation, aiming to integrate Senegalese elites into French culture, while the majority of the population faced discrimination and limited opportunities.

Resistance and Independence: The Senegalese resistance to French rule included political and cultural movements, with notable figures like Léopold Sédar Senghor, who later became Senegal’s first president. Senegal gained independence in 1960, and the legacy of colonialism remains in the political and social structures inherited from French rule.

Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast):
Colonial Establishment: Côte d’Ivoire was established as a French colony in 1893. It was part of French West Africa and served as an important economic asset due to its agricultural potential.

Economic Exploitation: The French exploited Côte d’Ivoire’s resources, including cocoa and coffee, which became major export products. The establishment of plantations led to the displacement of local communities and reliance on migrant labor from other parts of West Africa.

Cultural and Social Impact: French colonial policies in Côte d’Ivoire included the imposition of French administrative systems and the promotion of French education, which often undermined local customs and governance. The French also implemented policies that favored certain ethnic groups over others, exacerbating regional and ethnic tensions.

Resistance and Independence: The struggle for independence in Côte d’Ivoire was part of a broader movement across French West Africa. Félix Houphouët-Boigny, a key figure in the independence movement, became the first president of Côte d’Ivoire in 1960. The effects of colonialism are still evident in the country’s political and social dynamics.

North Africa:
Algeria:
Colonial Establishment: Algeria was invaded by France in 1830 and was declared a French colony in 1848. It was considered an integral part of France rather than a separate colony, with a significant number of European settlers establishing themselves there.

Economic Exploitation: The French administration focused on the extraction of resources such as minerals and agriculture, including vineyards and wheat. Land policies favored European settlers, leading to widespread dispossession and land loss for the indigenous Algerians.

Cultural and Social Impact: French colonial rule in Algeria involved significant cultural suppression, including the marginalization of Algerian Arabic and Berber languages, and the imposition of French education and legal systems. The French aimed to assimilate Algerians into French culture, but faced resistance from various sectors of Algerian society.

Resistance and Independence: The struggle for independence in Algeria was marked by violent conflict, including the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962), which involved brutal tactics from both sides. Algeria gained independence in 1962, but the legacy of colonialism, including social and economic challenges, has had a lasting impact on the nation.

Tunisia:
Colonial Establishment: Tunisia became a French protectorate in 1881, with the Treaty of Bardo (Qsar es-S’id) formalizing French control while nominally preserving the sovereignty of the Tunisian beylical system.

Economic Exploitation: French control over Tunisia focused on the exploitation of agricultural resources and infrastructure development, including railways and ports. The French administration encouraged European investment and settlement, often at the expense of local interests.

Cultural and Social Impact: French policies in Tunisia included the introduction of French educational and legal systems, which marginalized traditional Tunisian institutions and culture. The French also promoted secularism, which often clashed with the religious and cultural practices of the local population.

Resistance and Independence: The nationalist movement in Tunisia, led by figures such as Habib Bourguiba, sought to end French control. Tunisia gained independence in 1956, but the colonial legacy influenced its post-independence political and social structures.

Morocco:
Colonial Establishment: Morocco was established as a French protectorate in 1912, with the Treaty of Fez formalizing French control while preserving Moroccan sovereignty in name. Spain also had a stake in northern Morocco and the Western Sahara.

Economic Exploitation: The French administration focused on developing Morocco’s infrastructure, including railways and agricultural production, which primarily benefited French economic interests. Resource extraction and economic policies often disregarded the needs and rights of local populations.

Cultural and Social Impact: French colonial policies in Morocco involved the introduction of French educational systems and the promotion of French culture, which often conflicted with traditional Moroccan practices and institutions. The French administration also fostered divisions between different regions and ethnic groups.

Resistance and Independence: The Moroccan independence movement gained momentum in the mid-20th century, led by groups such as the Istiqlal Party and figures like Sultan Mohammed V. Morocco achieved independence in 1956. The impact of colonial policies continued to influence the country’s political and social landscape.

Colonial Legacy and Contemporary Issues:
Economic Disparities: The exploitation of resources and the imposition of economic policies during French colonial rule have left lasting economic disparities in former colonies. The legacy of uneven development and economic dependency continues to affect these regions.

Missionary Activity and Cultural Impact: French missionaries were active in spreading Christianity and Western education, which often undermined traditional African cultures and social structures. French colonial policies sought to assimilate Indigenous populations into French culture, frequently disregarding local customs and practices.

Canada:
Canada’s colonization began with French and later British settlers who displaced Indigenous nations such as the Cree, Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), and Métis through treaties and military force. The development of Canada involved the systematic marginalization of First Nations communities and the imposition of a colonial state structure.

Colonial Expansion and Indigenous Displacement:
The French established early settlements in Canada, including Quebec and Acadia, where they interacted with various Indigenous nations, such as the Huron-Wendat and Algonquin. When the British took control of these territories, they continued the process of displacement and marginalization of Indigenous peoples through various means:
Treaties: Early treaties between European settlers and Indigenous nations were often unequal and exploited Indigenous peoples’ lack of understanding of European legal concepts. These treaties frequently involved cessions of large tracts of land under conditions that were not fully understood or agreed upon by the Indigenous signatories. Examples include the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which sought to regulate land transactions and set boundaries but was often ignored in practice.
Military Force: Conflicts and military actions, such as the Beaver Wars and various skirmishes between British and French forces, also led to the displacement of Indigenous nations. The imposition of colonial control through military means further disrupted traditional territories and governance systems.

Systematic Marginalization and Assimilation Policies:
The establishment of Canada as a nation involved policies that marginalized Indigenous peoples and sought to assimilate them into European ways of life:

Indian Act (1876): The Indian Act was a federal law aimed at controlling and assimilating Indigenous peoples. It imposed a colonial governance structure, restricted traditional practices, and undermined Indigenous self-determination. The Act also facilitated the establishment of the residential school system, which aimed to eradicate Indigenous cultures and languages.
Residential Schools: From the late 19th century until the 1990s, Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in residential schools operated by the Canadian government and religious institutions. These schools were designed to assimilate Indigenous children, often through harsh discipline, cultural suppression, and abuse. The legacy of residential schools has had profound and lasting impacts on Indigenous communities, including intergenerational trauma.

Treaty Violations and Land Rights:
Numerous treaties were signed between the Canadian government and Indigenous nations, often under conditions of duress or misunderstanding. Many of these treaties were violated or inadequately honored by the government:

Numbered Treaties (1871-1921): These treaties were signed with various First Nations in what is now Canada. The government often promised land, rights, and resources that were not fully delivered. The land promised in these treaties was frequently encroached upon or exploited without proper compensation or consultation with Indigenous peoples.
Land Claims and Ongoing Disputes: Many Indigenous communities have ongoing land claims and disputes related to the unfulfilled promises of treaties and the encroachment of industrial development on traditional lands. The modern land claims process seeks to address these issues, but many disputes remain unresolved.

Canada’s Military and Defense Presence:
Canada’s military presence and defense strategies also reflect its historical and contemporary roles:
Military Equipment Sales: Canada has sold substantial amounts of military equipment globally. In 2022, Canadian military equipment exports were valued at approximately CAD 1.9 billion. These exports include armored vehicles, aircraft, and other defense technologies.
Historical Conflicts with Indigenous Peoples: Beyond the impacts of treaties and land dispossession, the Canadian government’s policies and actions have resulted in historical and ongoing conflicts with Indigenous communities, affecting their rights, territories, and socio-economic conditions.
The history of colonization in Canada, marked by displacement, treaty violations, and assimilation policies, continues to impact Indigenous communities. Efforts to address these historical injustices include reconciliation initiatives, legal actions, and ongoing advocacy for Indigenous rights and sovereignty. These efforts highlight the need for continued work towards justice, equity, and respect for Indigenous peoples and their contributions to Canadian society.

Australia
Australia’s colonization began with British settlers who displaced Indigenous nations such as the Yolngu, Noongar, and Koori through exploration, treaties, and military force. The development of Australia involved the systematic marginalization of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities and the imposition of a colonial state structure.

Colonial Expansion and Indigenous Displacement:
British exploration and settlement of Australia began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal colony of New South Wales. This marked the beginning of a process that significantly impacted Indigenous nations:

Land Seizure: The British claimed Australia as “Terra Nullius,” or land belonging to no one, disregarding the presence and sovereignty of Indigenous peoples who had lived on the continent for tens of thousands of years. This legal doctrine justified the seizure of land without treaties or consent.
Military Actions: Conflicts between British settlers and Indigenous peoples, such as the Black War in Tasmania and various frontier wars across the continent, led to significant loss of life and displacement of Indigenous communities. These conflicts were marked by violent clashes, massacres, and punitive expeditions.

Systematic Marginalization and Assimilation Policies:
The establishment of Australia as a nation involved policies that marginalized Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and sought to assimilate them into European ways of life:
White Australia Policy (1901-1973): This series of immigration policies aimed to maintain Australia as a predominantly white, European nation. It restricted non-European immigration and was part of a broader effort to assimilate Indigenous peoples into European cultural norms.
Assimilation Policies: From the late 19th century to the 1970s, the Australian government implemented policies aimed at assimilating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples into mainstream Australian society. This included the removal of Indigenous children from their families, known as the Stolen Generations. These policies were designed to eradicate Indigenous cultures and languages, causing profound and lasting harm.

Treaty and Land Rights Issues:
Australia has been criticized for its lack of formal treaties with Indigenous peoples and its handling of land rights:
No Treaty: Unlike Canada and the United States, Australia did not enter into formal treaties with its Indigenous peoples upon colonization. This absence of treaties has been a significant issue in recognizing and addressing Indigenous land rights and sovereignty.
Land Rights Movement: The 1960s and 1970s saw the rise of the land rights movement, leading to significant legal and political developments. The landmark case of Mabo v Queensland (1992) resulted in the recognition of native title, overturning the doctrine of Terra Nullius and acknowledging the traditional rights of Indigenous peoples to their lands.

Native Title Act (1993):
The Native Title Act of 1993 represents a significant, though ironically complex, milestone in the recognition of Indigenous land rights in Australia. Enacted in response to the landmark Mabo v Queensland (No. 2) decision by the High Court of Australia in 1992, the Act was designed to address the legal vacuum left by the previous doctrine of Terra Nullius, which had denied the existence of Indigenous land rights prior to European settlement.

Background and Context:
Mabo Decision: The Mabo decision, named after Eddie Mabo, an Indigenous Australian from the Torres Strait Islands, was a groundbreaking ruling that recognized the traditional land rights of Indigenous peoples. The High Court’s decision overturned the notion of Terra Nullius, acknowledging that Indigenous Australians had occupied and used their lands continuously and that their rights had not been extinguished by British colonization.
Legislative Response: In response to the Mabo decision, the Native Title Act was introduced to provide a legal framework through which Indigenous Australians could claim recognition of their traditional land rights. The Act aimed to create a structured process for determining and granting native title claims.

Key Provisions of the Native Title Act:
Recognition of Native Title: The Act allows Indigenous groups to seek recognition of their native title in areas where they can demonstrate a continuous connection to the land since before European settlement. This recognition is significant as it formally acknowledges Indigenous land rights within the framework of Australian law.

Claim Process: The Act establishes a process for lodging native title claims with the National Native Title Tribunal. Indigenous groups must provide evidence of their connection to the land through historical and cultural practices. The Tribunal assesses claims and makes recommendations, which are then reviewed by the courts.

Validation of Past Acts: The Act includes provisions to validate certain government actions and land grants made before the Act’s introduction, even if they affected areas subject to native title claims. This validation aimed to balance Indigenous land rights with existing land use and development.

Irony and Criticism:
While the Native Title Act marked a step forward in acknowledging Indigenous land rights, its implementation and outcomes have been marked by several ironies and criticisms:
Limited Scope: The Act’s framework, while groundbreaking, often falls short of fully addressing the depth of Indigenous land rights. It only provides recognition in specific cases where continuous connection can be proven, leaving many areas unaddressed. Additionally, the requirement to prove continuous connection can be challenging given the disruptions caused by colonization and subsequent policies.

Native Title vs. Land Ownership: The recognition of native title does not equate to full land ownership. Indigenous groups are granted rights to traditional land use and management but do not necessarily have ownership in the same manner as private landholders. This distinction can create limitations in how Indigenous communities can utilize their lands.

Legal and Bureaucratic Hurdles: The process for claiming native title involves navigating complex legal and bureaucratic procedures. Many Indigenous groups have faced significant obstacles in the lengthy and costly process of proving their claims, which can be disheartening and frustrating.
Impact on Development: The validation provisions of the Act, which protect certain land grants and development activities, have sometimes been criticized for prioritizing commercial and governmental interests over Indigenous land rights. This has led to tensions between development and preservation of traditional lands.

Ongoing Efforts and Reconciliation:
The Native Title Act remains a crucial component of Australia’s efforts to reconcile with its Indigenous peoples and address historical injustices. However, the complexities and limitations of the Act highlight the ongoing need for further reforms and improvements in recognizing and respecting Indigenous land rights.

Efforts continue to address the gaps and challenges in the Native Title system, with calls for greater recognition, stronger protections, and more inclusive and effective mechanisms for addressing Indigenous land claims. The Act represents both progress and ongoing challenges in Australia’s journey towards justice and reconciliation with its Indigenous peoples.

Historical and Ongoing Issues:
Indigenous Displacement and Land Loss: The displacement of Indigenous communities from their ancestral lands and the ongoing struggle for land rights and recognition remain critical issues. Indigenous Australians continue to face challenges related to land ownership, cultural preservation, and economic inequality.

Stolen Generations: The policies that led to the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families have had long-lasting effects. Many survivors of the Stolen Generations have experienced trauma and loss of cultural identity, and efforts for reconciliation and reparations continue.
Social and Economic Disparities: Indigenous Australians experience significant social and economic disparities, including lower life expectancy, higher rates of incarceration, and higher levels of poverty compared to non-Indigenous Australians.

New Zealand:
New Zealand’s Colonization and Historical Context:
Colonization and Displacement of Māori: New Zealand’s colonization began with the arrival of European explorers and settlers in the early 19th century. The British Crown sought to establish control over the islands, leading to significant impacts on the Indigenous Māori peoples. The primary groups affected included the Māori iwi (tribes) such as the Ngāi Tahu, Ngāti Toa, and Tūhoe. The introduction of European settlers resulted in land disputes, significant loss of territory, and profound disruptions to Māori social and political structures.

Land Conflicts and the New Zealand Wars (1845-1872):
New Zealand Wars: A series of armed conflicts occurred between Māori iwi and the British Crown, collectively known as the New Zealand Wars. These wars were driven by disputes over land and sovereignty. Key conflicts included the Flagstaff War (1845-1846) and the Waikato War (1863-1864), which resulted in the confiscation of large tracts of Māori land by the British government. The wars led to substantial land loss and social upheaval for Māori communities.

Treaty of Waitangi (1840):
Purpose and Significance: Signed in 1840 between the British Crown and Māori chiefs, the Treaty of Waitangi was intended to establish a framework for governance and recognize Māori land rights. It promised protection for Māori chieftainship and property while ceding sovereignty to the Crown. However, differing interpretations of the Treaty’s provisions led to numerous disputes and grievances.
Implementation Issues: Despite the Treaty’s promises, many Māori were dispossessed of their lands through dubious transactions and legislation that disregarded the Treaty’s guarantees. The Crown’s actions often violated the Treaty, leading to ongoing tensions and grievances.

Land Acts and Maori Dispossession:
Native Land Acts: A series of Native Land Acts were enacted from the 1860s onward, aimed at facilitating the sale and settlement of Māori land. These Acts often undermined Māori land ownership by imposing processes that favored European settlers and resulted in the alienation of significant Māori landholdings.
Land Court System: The introduction of the Land Court system further complicated Māori land tenure. The system was designed to convert customary Māori land rights into individual titles, which often led to fragmentation and loss of land due to sales and legal challenges.

Māori Representation and Political Rights:
Māori Representation Act (1867): This Act established four Māori seats in the New Zealand Parliament, allowing Māori to have a formal voice in the legislative process. While this was a step towards political inclusion, it did not fully address the broader issues of land rights and sovereignty.
Limited Voting Rights: Despite the establishment of Māori seats, Māori faced significant barriers to voting and political participation. The franchise was not fully extended to Māori until the early 20th century.

The Post-1947 Era: 
The New Forms of Colonialism
Even after the end of formal empires and decolonization, many former colonial powers have continued to exert influence through new forms of dominance. The period following World War II saw a shift from traditional colonialism to more subtle, yet pervasive, forms of control, often justified under the banners of modernization, democracy promotion, and economic aid. The USA, UK, France, the EU, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia have all played roles in maintaining global hierarchies that mirror colonial patterns, adapting their methods to fit the changing geopolitical landscape.

United States:
The U.S. has a long history of intervention in Latin America and other regions, often motivated by economic and strategic interests.

Chile (1973): The U.S. supported the coup that overthrew President Salvador Allende, a democratically elected leader, replacing him with General Augusto Pinochet. This intervention was part of Operation Condor, a broader campaign of political repression in South America. The coup led to a dictatorship resulting in thousands of deaths and disappearances. According to the National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture (Chile), around 40,000 people were tortured, and 3,000 were killed during Pinochet’s regime.
Nicaragua (1980s): During the Contra War, the U.S. funded and supported rebel groups fighting against the Sandinista government. The CIA’s covert operations included the illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras, a scandal known as the Iran-Contra Affair. This intervention exacerbated the conflict, contributing to significant human suffering; estimates suggest that around 30,000 people were killed in the conflict.
Middle East: U.S. involvement in the Middle East, including the invasions of Iraq in 1991 and 2003, has had profound consequences. The 2003 invasion led by the U.S. and its allies resulted in significant casualties and destruction. According to the Iraq Body Count project, the conflict led to the deaths of over 200,000 civilians by 2019. The U.S. has also maintained a presence in Afghanistan since 2001, where the conflict has resulted in thousands of civilian deaths and widespread instability.

Economic Exploitation:
Institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, heavily influenced by Western powers, have imposed economic policies that often prioritize the interests of these countries over local economies.

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs):
SAPs, implemented by the IMF and World Bank in the 1980s and 1990s, required developing nations to implement austerity measures, cut public spending, and open their markets to foreign investment. In countries like Argentina, Ghana, and Jamaica, these policies led to economic hardship, increased inequality, and social unrest. For example, in Argentina, the implementation of SAPs led to a severe economic crisis in 2001, with unemployment reaching 20% and poverty affecting over 50% of the population.

Debt Trap Diplomacy:
Developing countries often find themselves in a cycle of debt due to loans from these institutions. As of 2022, the global debt of low and middle-income countries reached approximately $9.3 trillion, with a significant portion owed to international financial institutions. This debt often restricts these countries’ ability to invest in social programs and development, perpetuating a cycle of dependency.
Military Presence and Bases

Global Network:
The U.S. maintains an extensive network of military bases around the world, which serves not only defensive but also strategic and economic purposes.

Asia: The U.S. has approximately 83 military bases in Japan and 28,500 troops stationed there, and about 28 bases in South Korea with around 26,000 troops. These bases play a crucial role in projecting U.S. power in the Asia-Pacific region, particularly in countering Chinese influence.

Europe: The U.S. maintains around 100 military installations across Europe, including in Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. These bases are integral to NATO operations and serve to uphold U.S. influence in European security matters.

Middle East: U.S. bases in the Middle East, such as those in Qatar, Bahrain, and the UAE, are key to maintaining influence in the region and controlling strategic waterways like the Strait of Hormuz. These bases also support ongoing operations in Iraq and Syria.

United Kingdom: The United Kingdom maintains a global network of military bases, which serves to uphold its influence, secure strategic interests, and protect economic resources. These bases are strategically located in various regions:

In the Turtle Island (Americas):
Falkland Islands: A British Overseas Territory in the South Atlantic Ocean, the UK maintains a military presence here to assert sovereignty and defend against any potential threats, especially in light of historical tensions with Argentina.
Cyprus: The UK operates two Sovereign Base Areas (SBAs) on the island, Akrotiri and Dhekelia. These bases play a critical role in regional security, including intelligence gathering, and serve as a strategic point for operations in the Middle East and North Africa.
In the Middle East:
Bahrain: The UK has a naval base in Bahrain, which is a key hub for British operations in the Gulf region. It supports maritime security and counter-terrorism efforts and helps to secure vital shipping lanes and oil reserves.
Oman: The UK maintains a military base at Duqm, which facilitates operations and supports regional security in the Arabian Peninsula.
United Arab Emirates: The UK has a military presence in the UAE, enhancing strategic cooperation and security partnerships in the Gulf region.

In Alkebulan (Africa):
Kenya: The UK operates a military base in Kenya, which is used for training and as a base for operations across the East African region. It supports counter-terrorism initiatives and regional stability.

In Asia-Pacific:
Brunei: The UK has a small military presence in Brunei, supporting defense cooperation and regional security in Southeast Asia.
Singapore: The UK maintains a military presence in Singapore, which serves as a strategic outpost for operations and partnerships in the Asia-Pacific region.

In the Indian Ocean:
Diego Garcia: The UK operates a significant military base on Diego Garcia, an island in the British Indian Ocean Territory. This base is a major hub for U.S. military operations and supports strategic interests in the Indian Ocean region.

In the South Atlantic:
Ascension Island: A British Overseas Territory, Ascension Island hosts a military base that supports operations in the South Atlantic and facilitates communications and logistics for other British bases.

In the Caribbean:
Montserrat: The UK maintains a small military presence on Montserrat to support local defense and disaster relief operations.
These bases reflect the UK’s ongoing commitment to maintaining its global influence and securing its strategic and economic interests. They are integral to the UK’s ability to project power, support international allies, and safeguard vital global resources.

France:
France operates a significant network of military bases around the world, reflecting its continued influence and strategic interests across multiple regions. The presence of these bases underscores France’s commitment to maintaining global influence, securing its strategic interests, and contributing to regional stability. Here’s a comprehensive look at France’s military installations:

In Alkebulan (Africa):
Djibouti: Hosts one of France’s largest military bases outside of metropolitan France. This base is crucial for operations in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, supporting counter-terrorism efforts and regional security.

Mali: The French military is actively involved in Mali as part of Operation Barkhane, aimed at combating jihadist groups and stabilizing the Sahel region. Despite its counter-terrorism efforts, the operation has faced criticism for its impact on local stability and sovereignty.

Senegal: France maintains a base in Dakar, which plays a strategic role in West Africa. This base supports regional security and French interests, contributing to peacekeeping and counter-terrorism operations.

Gabon: Located in Libreville, this base supports French military operations and presence in Central Africa, providing a strategic foothold in the region.

Chad: Hosts French forces as part of broader regional counter-terrorism efforts and support for local governments, aiding in maintaining stability in the Sahel region.

In South America:
French Guiana: The Centre Spatial Guyanais (Guiana Space Centre) is located here, serving both as a space launch facility and a military outpost. This base supports French interests in South America and provides a strategic location for monitoring and regional operations.

In the Indian Ocean:
Réunion: An island where France maintains a significant military presence to oversee maritime activities and regional security. This base plays a key role in the defense and monitoring of the Indian Ocean region.

In the Asia-Pacific Region:
New Caledonia: Located in the South Pacific, this base supports France’s strategic interests in the region and helps maintain military balance and readiness in the Asia-Pacific.

French Polynesia: Hosts a French military presence that supports regional security and French interests in the South Pacific, contributing to the stability and strategic presence in the area.

In the Middle East:
United Arab Emirates: France has established a base in Abu Dhabi to bolster its military footprint in the Middle East. This base enhances regional security, supports French interests in the Gulf, and contributes to international stability.

Other Notable Locations:
Mayotte: An overseas department in the Indian Ocean, where France maintains a military presence to ensure regional security and support maritime operations.

Guadeloupe and Martinique: Located in the Caribbean, these territories host French military assets that support regional defense and contribute to French presence in the Atlantic.
These bases highlight France’s strategic approach to maintaining global influence, supporting its military operations, and securing its interests across diverse geopolitical landscapes. They reflect France’s ongoing role in global power dynamics and its commitment to regional stability and international relations.

European Union:
While the European Union (EU) itself does not maintain a traditional network of military bases like individual nation-states, it conducts military and security operations through its Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). The EU’s military engagements are aimed at stabilizing regions, supporting peacekeeping efforts, and addressing security challenges that align with broader European and Western interests. Here are some key areas where the EU is active:
In Alkebulan (Africa):
Central African Republic: The EU operates a military training mission, known as EU Training Mission (EUTM) RCA, aimed at supporting and training the Central African Armed Forces to improve their capacity to maintain security and stability in the region.

Somalia: The EU has deployed the European Union Training Mission (EUTM) Somalia to help train and support the Somali National Army. This mission focuses on building the capacity of Somali security forces to combat terrorism and piracy and to stabilize the region.

Mali: The EU supports the European Union Training Mission (EUTM Mali), which is aimed at enhancing the capabilities of the Malian armed forces to contribute to regional security and counter-terrorism efforts.

Sahel Region: In addition to Mali, the EU is involved in the broader Sahel region through missions like EUCAP Sahel Niger and EUCAP Sahel Mali, which focus on capacity-building and training for local security forces.

In the Middle East:
Lebanon: The EU supports the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), where European countries contribute troops to maintain peace and support stability along the Lebanon-Israel border.

Gaza Strip: While the EU does not have direct military bases in Gaza, it is involved in various diplomatic and humanitarian efforts to address the conflict and support peacebuilding initiatives.

In Europe:
Bosnia and Herzegovina: The EU operates the EUFOR Althea mission, which is part of the broader European Union’s stabilization efforts. This mission provides support for the implementation of the Dayton Peace Agreement and helps maintain security and stability in the region.

Kosovo: The European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) focuses on the rule of law, including judicial, police, and customs activities, aiming to support Kosovo in its efforts to build a stable and functional state.

In the Asia-Pacific Region:
Papua New Guinea: The EU has engaged in various projects and initiatives to support regional security and development, although it does not maintain military bases in the region.

In Central Asia:
Kazakhstan: The EU is involved in security and development initiatives in Kazakhstan, focusing on regional stability and cooperation.

Canada:
Canada maintains a strategic military presence both domestically and internationally, reflecting its commitment to global security and its strategic interests. While Canada is primarily known for its peacekeeping role and contributions to multinational operations, it also operates several military bases around the globe. Here’s an overview of Canada’s military bases and activities:
Global Presence:
Operation Impact: This ongoing operation involves Canadian forces contributing to the anti-ISIS coalition in the Middle East, including deployments in Iraq and Syria.
Operation Reassurance: Canada participates in NATO’s deterrence and defense measures in Eastern Europe, with troops stationed in countries such as Latvia to bolster NATO’s eastern flank.
Military Equipment Sales:
Canada has been an active exporter of military equipment. In 2022, Canada sold approximately CAD 1.9 billion worth of military equipment, including armored vehicles and aircraft, to various countries. These sales reflect Canada’s role in global defense markets and its strategic economic interests in the defense sector.

Historical and Ongoing Issues with Indigenous Populations:
Canada has a complex and troubled history with its Indigenous populations, involving land dispossession, treaty violations, and systemic discrimination. The Canadian government has faced criticism for its handling of land rights and treaty obligations, with many Indigenous communities continuing to advocate for justice and restitution.

New Zealand:
Military Equipment Sales:
New Zealand’s defense industry engages in military exports, though on a smaller scale compared to larger powers. In 2022, New Zealand’s defense exports were valued at approximately $200 million. These exports include defense technology and equipment, underscoring New Zealand’s role in the global defense market. New Zealand’s military presence abroad and its defense exports reflect its strategic interests.

Australia:
Australia is a significant exporter of military equipment, with defense exports valued at AUD 1.9 billion in 2022. Australia’s military engagements with Indigenous populations include the frontier wars and the ongoing impacts of land dispossession. The Australian government has been criticized for its handling of Indigenous rights and land claims.
The creation and maintenance of new states and political entities often follow similar patterns of exclusion and dominance as those seen during the colonial period. The displacement of Indigenous peoples, the imposition of foreign governance systems, and the exploitation of local resources all echo early colonial practices. The new colonial powers are not merely historical relics but active participants in a global system that perpetuates inequality and exploitation, continuing a legacy of control that shapes international relations and global dynamics.

International Court of Justice Rulings and Ignored Advisory Opinions
Several International Court of Justice (ICJ) rulings and advisory opinions have involved or impacted the actions of former colonial powers, reflecting ongoing issues with compliance and respect for international law.

Advisory Opinion on the Wall (2004): The ICJ issued an advisory opinion stating that Israel’s construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, was illegal under international law. The Court called for the dismantling of the wall and reparations for affected Palestinians. Despite this, influential Western powers, including the USA, UK, and EU members, have been criticized for their insufficient pressure on Israel to comply with the ICJ’s decision.
Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (1996): The ICJ found that the use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to international law, but did not definitively rule on their legality in extreme circumstances. Despite this, nuclear-armed states like the USA, UK, and France have continued to develop and maintain their nuclear arsenals, with ongoing debates about disarmament and compliance with international norms.

Territories Still Controlled by Colonial Powers
Despite the formal end of colonialism, several territories around the world remain under the control or influence of former colonial powers, reflecting an ongoing legacy of dominance.

United Kingdom:
Falkland Islands: Located in the South Atlantic Ocean, this territory remains under British control despite Argentina’s ongoing claims.

Gibraltar: A British Overseas Territory on the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, strategically significant and a point of contention with Spain.

British Indian Ocean Territory: Includes Diego Garcia, a critical U.S. military base.

Ascension Island and Saint Helena: Both are British Overseas Territories in the South Atlantic Ocean, with strategic and historical significance.

France:
Réunion: An island department in the Indian Ocean, part of France.

New Caledonia: An overseas collectivity in the South Pacific, where discussions about its political status and potential independence continue.

Guadeloupe and Martinique: Both are overseas departments in the Caribbean, with varying degrees of integration into France.

European Union:
Canary Islands (Spain): An autonomous community of Spain located off the northwest coast of Africa.

Azores and Madeira (Portugal): Autonomous regions of Portugal located in the Atlantic Ocean.

Canada:
Nunavut: While not a colony, Nunavut represents a significant area of northern Canada where Indigenous self-governance and Canadian sovereignty intersect, highlighting ongoing challenges related to Indigenous rights and land management.

New Zealand:
Tokelau: A territory in the South Pacific under New Zealand’s administration.

Niue and the Cook Islands: Self-governing territories in free association with New Zealand, maintaining close ties and influence from New Zealand.

Australia:
Australian Antarctic Territory: Part of Antarctica claimed by Australia, with ongoing territorial disputes and international agreements.
Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands: Territories in the Indian Ocean, under Australian control with strategic and environmental significance.

United States:
Puerto Rico: An unincorporated territory in the Caribbean with a complex relationship to the U.S., including ongoing debates about statehood and self-determination.

Guam: An unincorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean, strategically important and subject to U.S. military presence.

American Samoa: An unincorporated territory in the South Pacific with unique political and cultural status under U.S. administration.

U.S. Virgin Islands: An unincorporated territory in the Caribbean, also with significant strategic and economic importance.

The continued control and influence over these territories by former colonial powers underscore the complexities of post-colonial relationships and the enduring impact of historical power dynamics on contemporary global politics. The persistence of colonial legacies highlights the challenges of achieving full sovereignty and self-determination for formerly colonized regions. These territories, while often possessing unique local identities and varying degrees of autonomy, still reflect a historical framework of control and influence that can complicate efforts toward genuine independence and self-governance.
The remnants of colonialism in these regions manifest in different ways, from direct political control to economic influence and strategic military presence. The ongoing debates and struggles for self-determination in these territories illustrate the broader issues of equity and justice that arise from enduring colonial legacies. As we examine the impact of these legacies and their influence on modern conflicts and political dynamics, it becomes clear that addressing historical injustices and power imbalances is crucial for fostering a more equitable and autonomous global community. Understanding these dynamics provides essential context for exploring the ongoing challenges faced by communities striving for true self-determination and sovereignty.

The ongoing influence and actions of former colonial powers, despite the formal end of their empires, paint a complex and troubling picture of contemporary global dynamics. The shift from traditional colonialism to more insidious forms of economic, political, and military dominance reveals a continuity of patterns deeply entrenched in the colonial era. Through interventions, economic exploitation, and strategic military deployments, these powers have managed to perpetuate systems of control and inequality that mirror their colonial pasts.

The United States, with its extensive network of military bases and history of intervention, exemplifies a clear continuation of its imperialistic tendencies. Its involvement in Latin America and the Middle East, while often justified under the guise of democracy promotion or combating terrorism, reflects a strategic approach to maintaining influence and control over vital resources and geopolitical regions. The economic policies imposed by institutions like the IMF and World Bank, often driven by Western interests, perpetuate a cycle of dependency and underdevelopment in many countries, showcasing the neocolonial nature of modern economic practices.

Similarly, European powers such as the United Kingdom, France, and the EU, while no longer governing vast empires directly, continue to exert influence through military presence and economic policies. The UK’s control over territories like Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands, and France’s ongoing administration of regions such as Réunion and New Caledonia, highlight the persistence of colonial legacies. The strategic and economic motivations behind these continued controls underscore a broader pattern of maintaining power and influence long after the end of formal colonial rule.
Canada, New Zealand, and Australia, while often less overt in their actions, also participate in global strategies that align with Western interests, reflecting a subtler form of neocolonialism. Their roles in international peacekeeping and military alliances, coupled with historical and ongoing conflicts with Indigenous populations, reveal the complexities of their positions in a global system still shaped by colonial legacies. The ongoing issues with Indigenous sovereignty and land rights in these countries further illustrate the enduring impact of colonialism on native populations.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has provided numerous rulings and advisory opinions aimed at addressing the injustices and legal violations stemming from these forms of dominance. However, the selective enforcement and occasional disregard for these rulings by powerful states reveal the challenges in achieving true international justice and accountability. The ICJ’s advisory opinions on issues such as the construction of the Israeli wall and the genocide in Myanmar highlight the gaps between international legal norms and the actions of powerful states, emphasizing the need for greater commitment to upholding international law.

In examining the continuation of colonial legacies and the influence of former colonial powers, it becomes clear that the struggles of Indigenous and marginalized communities are intricately connected to these historical power dynamics. The remnants of colonialism continue to shape contemporary conflicts, resistance movements, and efforts toward sovereignty and justice. The persistence of these issues underscores the importance of addressing the deep-rooted inequalities and injustices that still affect communities around the world. Understanding this historical context is crucial for confronting the ongoing challenges faced by those striving for self-determination and equity in a world still grappling with the remnants of its colonial past.

The USA, EU, UK, France, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand Total Global Arms Exports: Approximately $90 billion annually
The United States remains the largest player in the global arms market, accounting for about 37% of worldwide arms exports. This significant share underscores its dominant position in international defense and security, driven by its advanced military technology and extensive industrial base. The European Union, as a collective entity, contributes around 27% to the global arms market. Within the EU, countries like Germany, Italy, and Spain each play key roles, reflecting their substantial defense industries and export capabilities.
The United Kingdom and France are also major contributors to the global arms trade. The UK accounts for approximately 10% of global arms exports, reflecting its historical influence and current capabilities in defense manufacturing. France contributes about 8% to the market, with its own strong defense sector and international reach.
Canada and Australia, each account for roughly 2-3% of global arms exports, showcasing their significant yet secondary roles in the arms trade. New Zealand earned approximately $200 million in international arms sells.
Together, these nations contribute a substantial portion of the total global arms exports, which amounts to around $90 billion annually. This distribution highlights the concentrated influence of these countries in the global defense sector and their pivotal roles in shaping international military dynamics.